Propaganda
Types
Defining propaganda has always been a problem. Garth Jowett and Victoria O'Donnell have provided a concise, workable definition of the term: "Propaganda is the deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist" [3] This definition focuses on the communicative process involved—more precisely, on the purpose of the process, and allows "propaganda" to be considered as a neutral activity, which can be seen as positive or negative behavior depending on the perspective of the viewer. Propaganda is generally an appeal to emotion, not intellect. It shares techniques with advertising and public relations, each of which can be thought of as propaganda that promotes a commercial product or shapes the perception of an organization, person or brand, though in post-World War II usage the word "propaganda" more typically refers to political or nationalist uses of these techniques or to the promotion of a set of ideas, since the term had gained a pejorative meaning, which commercial and government entities could not accept.[citation needed] The refusal phenomenon was eventually to be seen in politics itself by the substitution of ‘political marketing’ and other designations for ‘political propaganda’. Propaganda was often used to influence opinions and beliefs on religious issues, particularly during the split between the Roman Catholic Church and the Protestant churches. Propaganda has become more common in political contexts, in particular to refer to certain efforts sponsored by governments, political groups, but also often covert interests. In the early 20th century, propaganda was exemplified in the form of party slogans. Also in the early 20th century the term propaganda was used by the founders of the nascent public relations industry to describe their activities. This usage died out around the time of World War II, as the industry started to avoid the word, given the pejorative connotation it had acquired.
Literally translated from the Latin gerundive as "things that must be disseminated", in some cultures the term is neutral or even positive, while in others the term has acquired a strong negative connotation. The connotations of the term "propaganda" can also vary over time. For example, in Portuguese and some Spanish language speaking countries, particularly in the Southern Cone, the word "propaganda" usually refers to the most common manipulative media — "advertising". In English, "propaganda" was originally a neutral term used to describe the dissemination of information in favor of any given cause. During the 20th century, however, the term acquired a thoroughly negative meaning in western countries, representing the intentional dissemination of often false, but certainly "compelling" claims to support or justify political actions or ideologies. This redefinition arose because both the Soviet Union and Germany's government under Hitler admitted explicitly to using propaganda favoring, respectively, communism and Nazism, in all forms of public expression. As these ideologies were repugnant to liberal western societies, the negative feelings toward them came to be projected into the word "propaganda" itself. Propaganda is neutrally defined as a systematic form of purposeful persuasion that attempts to influence the emotions, attitudes, opinions, and actions of specified target audiences for ideological, political or commercial purposes through the controlled transmission of one-sided messages (which may or may not be factual) via mass and direct media channels. A propaganda organization employs propagandists who engage in propagandism—the applied creation and distribution of such forms of persuasion." —Richard Alan Nelson, A Chronology and Glossary of Propaganda in the United States, 1996
Roderick Hindery argues[4] that propaganda exists on the political left, and right, and in mainstream centrist parties. Hindery further argues that debates about most social issues can be productively revisited in the context of asking "what is or is not propaganda?" Not to be overlooked is the link between propaganda, indoctrination, and terrorism/counterterrorism. He argues that threats to destroy are often as socially disruptive as physical devastation itself. Propaganda also has much in common with public information campaigns by governments, which are intended to encourage or discourage certain forms of behavior (such as wearing seat belts, not smoking, not littering and so forth). Again, the emphasis is more political in propaganda. Propaganda can take the form of leaflets, posters, TV and radio broadcasts and can also extend to any other medium. In the case of the United States, there is also an important legal (imposed by law) distinction between advertising (a type of overt propaganda) and what the Government Accountability Office (GAO), an arm of the United States Congress, refers to as "covert propaganda." Journalistic theory generally holds that news items should be objective, giving the reader an accurate background and analysis of the subject at hand. On the other hand, advertisements evolved from the traditional commercial advertisements to include also a new type in the form of paid articles or broadcasts disguised as news. These generally present an issue in a very subjective and often misleading light, primarily meant to persuade rather than inform. Normally they use only subtle propaganda techniques and not the more obvious ones used in traditional commercial advertisements. If the reader believes that a paid advertisement is in fact a news item, the message the advertiser is trying to communicate will be more easily "believed" or "internalized." Such advertisements are considered obvious examples of "covert" propaganda because they take on the appearance of objective information rather than the appearance of propaganda, which is misleading. Federal law specifically mandates that any advertisement appearing in the format of a news item must state that the item is in fact a paid advertisement.
The propagandist seeks to change the way people understand an issue or situation for the purpose of changing their actions and expectations in ways that are desirable to the interest group. Propaganda, in this sense, serves as a corollary to censorship in which the same purpose is achieved, not by filling people's minds with approved information, but by preventing people from being confronted with opposing points of view. What sets propaganda apart from other forms of advocacy is the willingness of the propagandist to change people's understanding through deception and confusion rather than persuasion and understanding. The leaders of an organization know the information to be one sided or untrue, but this may not be true for the rank and file members who help to disseminate the propaganda. More in line with the religious roots of the term, it is also used widely in the debates about new religious movements (NRMs), both by people who defend them and by people who oppose them. The latter pejoratively call these NRMs cults. Anti-cult activists and countercult activists accuse the leaders of what they consider cults of using propaganda extensively to recruit followers and keep them. Some social scientists, such as the late Jeffrey Hadden, and CESNUR affiliated scholars accuse ex-members of "cults" who became vocal critics and the anti-cult movement of making these unusual religious movements look bad without sufficient reasons.[5][6]
Propaganda is a powerful weapon in war; it is used to dehumanize and create hatred toward a supposed enemy, either internal or external, by creating a false image in the mind. This can be done by using derogatory or racist terms, avoiding some words or by making allegations of enemy atrocities. Most propaganda wars require the home population to feel the enemy has inflicted an injustice, which may be fictitious or may be based on facts. The home population must also decide that the cause of their nation is just. Propaganda is also one of the methods used in psychological warfare, which may also involve false flag operations. The term propaganda may also refer to false information meant to reinforce the mindsets of people who already believe as the propagandist wishes. The assumption is that, if people believe something false, they will constantly be assailed by doubts. Since these doubts are unpleasant (see cognitive dissonance), people will be eager to have them extinguished, and are therefore receptive to the reassurances of those in power. For this reason propaganda is often addressed to people who are already sympathetic to the agenda. process of reinforcement uses an individual's predisposition to self-select "agreeable" information sources as a mechanism for maintaining control.
Propaganda can be classified according to the source and nature of the message. White propaganda generally comes from an openly identified source, and is characterized by gentler methods of persuasion, such as standard public relations techniques and one-sided presentation of an argument. Black propaganda is identified as being from one source, but is in fact from another. This is most commonly to disguise the true origins of the propaganda, be it from an enemy country or from an organization with a negative public image. Grey propaganda is propaganda without any identifiable source or author. A major application of grey propaganda is making enemies believe falsehoods using straw arguments: As phase one, to make someone believe "A", one releases as grey propaganda "B", the opposite of "A". In phase two, "B" is discredited using some strawman. The enemy will then assume "A" to be true. In scale, these different types of propaganda can also be defined by the potential of true and correct information to compete with the propaganda. For example, opposition to white propaganda is often readily found and may slightly discredit the propaganda source. Opposition to grey propaganda, when revealed (often by an inside source), may create some level of public outcry. Opposition to black propaganda is often unavailable and may be dangerous to reveal, because public cognizance of black propaganda tactics and sources would undermine or backfire the very campaign the black propagandist supported. Propaganda may be administered in insidious ways. For instance, disparaging disinformation about the history of certain groups or foreign countries may be encouraged or tolerated in the educational system. Since few people actually double-check what they learn at school, such disinformation will be repeated by journalists as well as parents, thus reinforcing the idea that the disinformation item is really a "well-known fact", even though no one repeating the myth is able to point to an authoritative source. The disinformation is then recycled in the media and in the educational system, without the need for direct governmental intervention on the media. Such permeating propaganda may be used for political goals: by giving citizens a false impression of the quality or policies of their country, they may be incited to reject certain proposals or certain remarks or ignore the experience of others. See also: black propaganda, marketing, advertising. Techniques
See also: Doublespeak, Cult of personality, Spin (politics), Demonization, and Factoid Common media for transmitting propaganda messages include news reports, government reports, historical revision, junk science, books, leaflets, movies, radio, television, and posters. Less common nowadays are letterpost envelopes examples of which of survive from the time of the American Civil War.(Connecticut Historical Society;Civil War Collections;Covers(envelopes). (In principle any thing that appears on a poster can be produced on a reduced scale on a pocket-style envelope with corresponding proportions to the poster). The case of radio and television, propaganda can exist on news, current-affairs or talk-show segments, as advertising or public-service announce "spots" or as long-running advertorials. Propaganda campaigns often follow a strategic transmission pattern to indoctrinate the target group. This may begin with a simple transmission such as a leaflet dropped from a plane or an advertisement. Generally these messages will contain directions on how to obtain more information, via a web site, hot line, radio program, et cetera (as it is seen also for selling purposes among other goals). The strategy intends to initiate the individual from information recipient to information seeker through reinforcement, and then from information seeker to opinion leader through indoctrination. A number of techniques based in social psychological research are used to generate propaganda. Many of these same techniques can be found under logical fallacies, since propagandists use arguments that, while sometimes convincing, are not necessarily valid. Some time has been spent analyzing the means by which the propaganda messages are transmitted. That work is important but it is clear that information dissemination strategies become propaganda strategies only when coupled with propagandistic messages. Identifying these messages is a necessary prerequisite to study the methods by which those messages are spread. Below are a number of techniques for generating propaganda:
Ad hominemA Latin phrase that has come to mean attacking your opponent, as opposed to attacking their arguments. Ad nauseamThis argument approach uses tireless repetition of an idea. An idea, especially a simple slogan, that is repeated enough times, may begin to be taken as the truth. This approach works best when media sources are limited and controlled by the propagator. Appeal to authorityAppeals to authority cite prominent figures to support a position, idea, argument, or course of action. Appeal to fearAppeals to fear seek to build support by instilling anxieties and panic in the general population, for example, Joseph Goebbels exploited Theodore Kaufman's Germany Must Perish! to claim that the Allies sought the extermination of the German people. Appeal to prejudiceUsing loaded or emotive terms to attach value or moral goodness to believing the proposition. Used in biased or misleading ways. BandwagonBandwagon and "inevitable-victory" appeals attempt to persuade the target audience to join in and take the course of action that "everyone else is taking."
Beautiful peopleThe type of propaganda that deals with famous people or depicts attractive, happy people. This makes other people think that if they buy a product or follow a certain ideology, they too will be happy or successful. Big LieThe repeated articulation of a complex of events that justify subsequent action. The descriptions of these events have elements of truth, and the "big lie" generalizations merge and eventually supplant the public's accurate perception of the underlying events. After World War I the German Stab in the back explanation of the cause of their defeat became a justification for Nazi re-militarization and revanchist aggression. Black-and-white fallacyPresenting only two choices, with the product or idea being propagated as the better choice. (e.g., George W. Bush "Either you are with us or against us.") Common manThe "'plain folks'" Making individuals from the opposing nation, from a different ethnic group, or
those who support the opposing viewpoint appear to be subhuman (e.g., the
Vietnam War-era term "gooks" for National Front for the Liberation of South
Vietnam aka Vietcong, (or 'VC') soldiers), worthless, or immoral, through
suggestion or false accusations. World War I poster by Winsor McCay, urging Americans to buy Liberty Bonds This technique hopes to simplify the decision making process by using images and
words to tell the audience exactly what actions to take, eliminating any other
possible choices. Authority figures can be used to give the order, overlapping
it with the Appeal to authority technique, but not necessarily. The Uncle Sam "I
want you" image is an example of this technique. The creation or deletion of information from public records, in the purpose of
making a false record of an event or the actions of a person or organization,
including outright forgery of photographs, motion pictures, broadcasts, and
sound recordings as well as printed documents. The use of an event that generates euphoria or happiness, or using an appealing
event to boost morale. Euphoria can be created by declaring a holiday, making
luxury items available, or mounting a military parade with marching bands and
patriotic messages. An attempt to justify an action on the grounds that doing so will make one more
patriotic, or in some way benefit a group, country, or idea. The feeling of
patriotism this technique attempts to inspire may not necessarily diminish or
entirely omit one's capability for rational examination of the matter in
question. The Finnish Maiden - personification of Finnish nationalism Glittering generalities are emotionally appealing words applied to a product or
idea, but which present no concrete argument or analysis. A famous example is
the campaign slogan "Ford has a better idea!" A half-truth is a deceptive statement, which may come in several forms and
includes some element of truth. The statement might be partly true, the
statement may be totally true but only part of the whole truth, or it may
utilize some deceptive element, such as improper punctuation, or double meaning,
especially if the intent is to deceive, evade blame or misrepresent the truth. Generalities are deliberately vague so that the audience may supply its own
interpretations. The intention is to move the audience by use of undefined
phrases, without analyzing their validity or attempting to determine their
reasonableness or application. The intent is to cause people to draw their own
interpretations rather than simply being presented with an explicit idea. In
trying to "figure out" the propaganda, the audience forgoes judgment of the
ideas presented. Their validity, reasonableness and application may still be
considered. A Euphemism is used when the propagandist attempts to increase the perceived
quality, credibility, or credence of a particular ideal. A Dysphemism is used
when the intent of the propagandist is to discredit, diminish the perceived
quality, or hurt the perceived righteousness of the Mark. By creating a 'label'
or 'category' or 'faction' of a population, it is much easier to make an example
of these larger bodies, because they can uplift or defame the Mark without
actually incurring legal-defamation. Example: "Liberal" is a dysphemism intended
to diminish the perceived credibility of a particular Mark. By taking a
displeasing argument presented by a Mark, the propagandist can quote that
person, and then attack 'liberals' in an attempt to both Example: "Racist" is
another dysphemism intended to diminish credibility of a particular mark. (1)
create a political battle-ax of unaccountable aggression and (2) diminish the
quality of the Mark. If the propagandist uses the label on too-many perceivably
credible individuals, muddying up the word can be done by broadcasting
bad-examples of 'liberals' into the media. Labeling can be thought of as a
sub-set of Guilt by association, another logical fallacy. Propagandists use the name-calling technique to incite fears and arouse
prejudices in their hearers in the intent that the bad names will cause hearers
to construct a negative opinion about a group or set of beliefs or ideas that
the propagandist would wish hearers to denounce. The method is intended to
provoke conclusions about a matter apart from impartial examinations of facts.
Name-calling is thus a substitute for rational, fact-based arguments against the
an idea or belief on its own merits.[7] This technique is used to persuade a target audience to disapprove of an action
or idea by suggesting that the idea is popular with groups hated, feared, or
held in contempt by the target audience. Thus if a group that supports a certain
policy is led to believe that undesirable, subversive, or contemptible people
support the same policy, then the members of the group may decide to change
their original position. This is a form of bad logic, where a is said to include
X, and b is said to include X, therefore, a = b. Favorable generalities are used to provide simple answers to complex social,
political, economic, or military problems. Illustration by Rev. Branford Clarke from Heroes of the Fiery Cross by Bishop
Alma White published by the Pillar of Fire Church 1928 in Zarephath, NJ Selectively editing quotes to change meanings—political documentaries designed
to discredit an opponent or an opposing political viewpoint often make use of
this technique. Individuals or groups may use favorable generalities to rationalize questionable
acts or beliefs. Vague and pleasant phrases are often used to justify such
actions or beliefs. Presenting data or issues that, while compelling, are irrelevant to the argument
at hand, and then claiming that it validates the argument. This type of propaganda deals with a jingle or word that is repeated over and
over again, thus getting it stuck in someones head, so they can buy the product.
The "Repetition" method has been described previously. Assigning blame to an individual or group, thus alleviating feelings of guilt
from responsible parties and/or distracting attention from the need to fix the
problem for which blame is being assigned. A slogan is a brief, striking phrase that may include labeling and stereotyping.
Although slogans may be enlisted to support reasoned ideas, in practice they
tend to act only as emotional appeals. Opponents of the US's invasion and
occupation of Iraq use the slogan "blood for oil" to suggest that the invasion
and its human losses was done to access Iraq's oil riches. On the other hand,
"hawks" who argue that the US should continue to fight in Iraq use the slogan
"cut and run" to suggest that it would be cowardly or weak to withdraw from
Iraq. Similarly, the names of the military campaigns, such as "enduring freedom"
or "just cause", may also be regarded to be slogans, devised to influence
people. This technique attempts to arouse prejudices in an audience by labeling the
object of the propaganda campaign as something the target audience fears, hates,
loathes, or finds undesirable. For instance, reporting on a foreign country or
social group may focus on the stereotypical traits that the reader expects, even
though they are far from being representative of the whole country or group;
such reporting often focuses on the anecdotal. In graphic propaganda, including
war posters, this might include portraying enemies with stereotyped racial
features. Testimonials are quotations, in or out of context, especially cited to support
or reject a given policy, action, program, or personality. The reputation or the
role (expert, respected public figure, etc.) of the individual giving the
statement is exploited. The testimonial places the official sanction of a
respected person or authority on a propaganda message. This is done in an effort
to cause the target audience to identify itself with the authority or to accept
the authority's opinions and beliefs as its own. See also, damaging quotation "The Bulgarian Martyresses", 1877 painting by the Russian painter Konstantin
Makovsky depicting the rape of Bulgarian women by Ottoman troops during the
suppression of the April Uprising a year earlier, served to mobilise public
support for the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) waged with the proclaimed aim of
liberating the Bulgarians. Also known as association, this is a technique that involves projecting the
positive or negative qualities of one person, entity, object, or value onto
another to make the second more acceptable or to discredit it. It evokes an
emotional response, which stimulates the target to identify with recognized
authorities. Often highly visual, this technique often utilizes symbols
superimposed over other visual images. These symbols may be used in place of
words; for example, placing swastikas on or around a picture of an opponent to
associate the opponent with Naziism. This technique is used when the propaganda concept that the propagandist intends
to transmit would seem less credible if explicitly stated. The concept is
instead repeatedly assumed or implied. These are words in the value system of the target audience that produce a
positive image when attached to a person or issue. Peace, happiness, security,
wise leadership, freedom, "The Truth", etc. are virtue words. In countries such
as the U.S. religiosity is seen as a virtue, making associations to this quality
affectively beneficial. See Transfer. First Red Scare depiction of a "European Anarchist" attempting to destroy the
Statue of Liberty. The propaganda model is a theory advanced by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky
that alleges systemic biases in the mass media and seeks to explain them in
terms of structural economic causes. The 20th century has been characterized by three developments of great political
importance: the growth of democracy, the growth of corporate power, and the
growth of corporate propaganda as a means of protecting corporate power against
democracy. First presented in their 1988 book Manufacturing Consent: the Political Economy
of the Mass Media, the propaganda model views the private media as businesses
selling a product — readers and audiences (rather than news) — to other
businesses (advertisers) and relying primarily on government and corporate
information and propaganda. The theory postulates five general classes of
"filters" that determine the type of news that is presented in news media:
Ownership of the medium, the medium's Funding, Sourcing of the news, Flak, and
Anti-communist ideology. The first three (ownership, funding, and sourcing) are generally regarded by the
authors as being the most important. Although the model was based mainly on the
characterization of United States media, Chomsky and Herman believe the theory
is equally applicable to any country that shares the basic economic structure
and organizing principles the model postulates as the cause of media biases.
After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Chomsky stated that the new filter
replacing communism would be terrorism and Islam. The epistemic merit model is a method for understanding propaganda conceived by
Sheryl Tuttle Ross and detailed in her 2002 article for the Journal of Aesthetic
Education entitled "Understanding Propaganda: The Epistemic Merit Model and Its
Application to Art".[10] Ross developed the Epistemic merit model due to concern
about narrow, misleading definitions of propaganda. She contrasted her model
with the ideas of Pope Gregory XV, the Institute for Propaganda Analysis, Alfred
Lee, F.C. Bartlett, and Hans Speier. Insisting that each of their respective
discussions of propaganda are too narrow, Ross proposed her own definition. American World War I poster: "Remember Your First Thrill of American Liberty" To appropriately discuss propaganda, Ross argues that one must consider a
threefold communication model: that of Sender-Message-Receiver. "That is...
propaganda involve[s]... the one who is persuading (Sender) [who is] doing so
intentionally, [the] target for such persuasion (Receiver) and [the] means of
reaching that target (Message)." There are four conditions for a message to be
considered propaganda. Propaganda involves the intention to persuade. As well,
propaganda is sent on behalf of a sociopolitical institution, organization, or
cause. Next, the recipient of propaganda is a socially significant group of
people. Finally, propaganda is an epistemic struggle to challenge other
thoughts. Ross claims that it is misleading to say that propaganda is simply false, or
that it is conditional to a lie, since often the propagandist believes in what
he/she is propagandizing. In other words, it is not necessarily a lie if the
person who creates the propaganda is trying to persuade you of a view that they
actually hold. "The aim of the propagandist is to create the semblance of
credibility." This means that they appeal to an epistemology that is weak or
defective. False statements, bad arguments, immoral commands as well as inapt metaphors
(and other literary tropes) are the sorts of things that are epistemically
defective... Not only does epistemic defectiveness more accurately describe how
propaganda endeavors to function... since many messages are in forms such as
commands that do not admit to truth-values, [but it] also accounts for the role
context plays in the workings of propaganda. Throughout history those who have wished to persuade have used art to get their
message out. This can be accomplished by hiring artists for the express aim of
propagandizing or by investing new meanings to a previously non-political work.
Therefore, Ross states, it is important to consider "the conditions of its
making [and] the conditions of its use." English Civil War cartoon entitled "The Cruel Practices of Prince Rupert" (1643) Propaganda has been a human activity as far back as reliable recorded evidence
exists. The Behistun Inscription (c. 515 BC) detailing the rise of Darius I to
the Persian throne, can be seen as an early example of propaganda. The
Arthashastra written by Chanakya (c. 350 - 283 BC), a professor of political
science at Takshashila University and a prime minister of the Maurya Empire in
ancient India, discusses propaganda in detail, such as how to spread propaganda
and how to apply it in warfare. His student Chandragupta Maurya (c. 340 - 293
BC), founder of the Maurya Empire, employed these methods during his rise to
power.[11] The writings of Romans such as Livy (c. 59 BC - 17 AD) are considered
masterpieces of pro-Roman propaganda. Another example of early propaganda would
be the 12th century work The War of the Irish with the Foreigners, written by
the Dál gCais to portray themselves as legitimate rulers of Ireland. German peasants greet the fire and brimstone from a papal bull of Pope Paul III
in Martin Luther's 1545 Depictions of the Papacy<(i>.
Propaganda during the Reformation, helped by the spread of the printing press
throughout Europe, and in particular within Germany, caused new ideas, thoughts,
and doctrine to be made available to the public in ways that had never been seen
before the sixteenth century. The printing press was invented in approximately
1450 and quickly spread to other major cities around Europe; by the time the
Reformation was underway in 1517 there were printing centers in over 200 of the
major European cities.[12] These centers became the primary producers of both
Reformation works by the Protestant Reformers and anti-Reformation works put
forth by the Roman Catholics. With the beginnings of the mass media in the 19th century, war rape was
sometimes used as propaganda by European colonialists to justify the
colonization of places they had conquered. The most notable example was perhaps
during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, known as "India's First War of
Independence" to the Indians and as the "Sepoy Mutiny" to the British, where
Indian sepoys rebelled against the British East India Company's rule in India.
While incidents of rape committed by Indian rebels against English women or
girls were generally uncommon during the rebellion, this was exaggerated to
great effect by the British media to justify continued British colonialism in
the Indian subcontinent.[13] At the time, British newspapers had printed various
accounts about English women and girls being raped by the Indian rebels, but
with little physical evidence to support these stories. It was later found that
some of these accounts were false stories created to paint the native people of
India as savages who need to be civilized by British colonialists, a mission
sometimes known as "The White Man's Burden". One such account published by The
Times, regarding an incident where 48 English girls as young as 10–14 were
supposedly raped by the Indian rebels in Delhi, was criticized as a false
propaganda story by Karl Marx, who pointed out that the story was reported by a
clergyman in Bangalore, far from the events of the rebellion.[14] Gabriel Tarde's Laws of Imitation (1890) and Gustave Le Bon's The Crowd: A Study
of the Popular Mind (1897) were two of the first codifications of propaganda
techniques, which influenced many writers afterward, including Sigmund Freud.
Hitler's Mein Kampf is heavily influenced by Le Bon's theories. Journalist
Walter Lippmann, in Public Opinion (1922) also worked on the subject, as well as
the American advertising pioneer Edward Bernays, a nephew of Freud, early in the
20th century.[15] During World War I, Lippmann and Bernays were hired by then United States
President, Woodrow Wilson, to participate in the Creel Commission, the mission
of which was to sway popular opinion in favor of entering the war, on the side
of the United Kingdom. The Creel Commission provided themes for speeches by
"four-minute men" at public functions, and also encouraged censorship of the
American press. The Commission was so unpopular that after the war, Congress
closed it down without providing funding to organize and archive its papers. The war propaganda campaign of Lippmann and Bernays produced within six months
such an intense anti-German hysteria as to permanently impress American business
(and Adolf Hitler, among others) with the potential of large-scale propaganda to
control public opinion. Bernays coined the terms "group mind" and "engineering
consent", important concepts in practical propaganda work. The current public relations industry is a direct outgrowth of Lippmann's and
Bernays' work and is still used extensively by the United States government. For
the first half of the 20th century Bernays and Lippmann themselves ran a very
successful public relations firm. World War II saw continued use of propaganda
as a weapon of war, both by Hitler's propagandist Joseph Goebbels and the
British Political Warfare Executive, as well as the United States Office of War
Information. In the early 2000s, the United States government developed and freely
distributed a video game known as America's Army. The stated intention of the
game is to encourage players to become interested in joining the U.S. Army. Further information: Propaganda in the Soviet Union, Agitprop, and Socialist
realism Russian revolutionaries of the 19th and 20th centuries distinguished two
different aspects covered by the English term propaganda. Their terminology
included two terms: Russian: агитация (agitatsiya), or agitation, and
Russian: пропаганда, or propaganda, see agitprop (agitprop is not,
however, limited to the Soviet Union, as it was considered, before the October
Revolution, to be one of the fundamental activities of any Marxist activist;
this importance of agit-prop in Marxist theory may also be observed today in
Trotskyist circles, who insist on the importance of leaflet distribution). Soviet propaganda meant dissemination of revolutionary ideas, teachings of
Marxism, and theoretical and practical knowledge of Marxist economics, while
agitation meant forming favorable public opinion and stirring up political
unrest. These activities did not carry negative connotations (as they usually do
in English) and were encouraged. Expanding dimensions of state propaganda, the
Bolsheviks actively used transportation such as trains, aircraft and other
means. Joseph Stalin's regime built the largest fixed-wing aircraft of the 1930s,
Tupolev ANT-20, exclusively for this purpose. Named after the famous Soviet
writer Maxim Gorky who had recently returned from fascist Italy, it was equipped
with a powerful radio set called "Voice from the sky", printing and
leaflet-dropping machinery, radio stations, photographic laboratory, film
projector with sound for showing movies in flight, library, etc. The aircraft
could be disassembled and transported by railroad if needed. The giant aircraft
set a number of world records. The GPU thunderbolt strikes the counter-revolutionary saboteur. "Long Live World October (revolution)!" Bolshevik propaganda train, 1923. ANT-20 "Maxim Gorky" propaganda aircraft in the Moscow sky. Most propaganda in Germany was produced by the Ministry of Public Enlightenment
and Propaganda. Joseph Goebbels was placed in charge of this ministry shortly
after Hitler took power in 1933. All journalists, writers, and artists were
required to register with one of the Ministry's subordinate chambers for the
press, fine arts, music, theatre, film, literature, or radio. The Nazis believed in propaganda as a vital tool in achieving their goals. Adolf
Hitler, Germany's Führer, was impressed by the power of Allied propaganda
during World War I and believed that it had been a primary cause of the collapse
of morale and revolts in the German home front and Navy in 1918 (see also:
Dolchstoßlegende). Hitler would meet nearly every day with Goebbels to discuss
the news and Goebbels would obtain Hitler's thoughts on the subject; Goebbels
would then meet with senior Ministry officials and pass down the official Party
line on world events. Broadcasters and journalists required prior approval
before their works were disseminated. Along with posters, the Nazis produced a
number of films and books to spread their beliefs. Nazi Poster depicting American "liberators" as monster. "Mother and Child" poster for charity subscription. "The Eternal Jew" poster for a movie. "Mothers Fight for your Children." Invites Dutchmen to join the SS. Poster promoting eugenics and euthanasia of disabled people. Nazi poster portraying Adolf Hitler. Text: "Long Live Germany!" Recruitment poster for pro-Nazi Italian Social Republic naval auxiliaries Lappland-Kurier soldiers newspaper German Democratic Republic poster showing the increase of timber production from
7 million cubic metres in 1970 to 11 million in 1990, although in reality it was
the opposite. (also see Economy of the German Democratic Republic) Poster showing the increase of agricultural production in the German Democratic
Republic from 1981 to 1983 and 1986 Soldier loads a "leaflet bomb" during the Korean war. See also: Eastern Bloc information dissemination and Propaganda in the Soviet
Union The United States and the Soviet Union both used propaganda extensively during
the Cold War. Both sides used film, television, and radio programming to
influence their own citizens, each other, and Third World nations. The United
States Information Agency operated the Voice of America as an official
government station. Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty, which were, in part,
supported by the Central Intelligence Agency, provided grey propaganda in news
and entertainment programs to Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union respectively.
The Soviet Union's official government station, Radio Moscow, broadcast white
propaganda, while Radio Peace and Freedom broadcast grey propaganda. Both sides
also broadcast black propaganda programs in periods of special crises. In 1948, the United Kingdom's Foreign Office created the IRD (Information
Research Department), which took over from wartime and slightly post-war
departments such as the Ministry of Information and dispensed propaganda via
various media such as the BBC and publishing.[16][17] The ideological and border dispute between the Soviet Union and People's
Republic of China resulted in a number of cross-border operations. One technique
developed during this period was the "backwards transmission", in which the
radio program was recorded and played backwards over the air. (This was done so
that messages meant to be received by the other government could be heard, while
the average listener could not understand the content of the program.) When describing life in capitalist countries, in the US in particular,
propaganda focused on social issues such as poverty and anti-union action by the
government. Workers in capitalist countries were portrayed as "ideologically
close". Propaganda claimed rich people from the US derived their income from
weapons manufacturing, and claimed that there was substantial racism or
neo-fascism in the US. When describing life in Communist countries, western propaganda sought to depict
an image of a citizenry held captive by governments that brainwash them. The
West also created a fear of the East, by depicting an aggressive Soviet Union.
In the Americas, Cuba served as a major source and a target of propaganda from
both black and white stations operated by the CIA and Cuban exile groups. Radio
Habana Cuba, in turn, broadcast original programming, relayed Radio Moscow, and
broadcast The Voice of Vietnam as well as alleged confessions from the crew of
the USS Pueblo. George Orwell's novels Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four are virtual
textbooks on the use of propaganda. Though not set in the Soviet Union, these
books are about totalitarian regimes that constantly corrupt language for
political purposes. These novels were, ironically, used for explicit propaganda.
The CIA, for example, secretly commissioned an animated film adaptation of
Animal Farm in the 1950s with small changes to the original story to suit its
own needs.[18] During the democratic revolutions of 1989 in Central and Eastern Europe the
propaganda poster was an important weapon in the hand of the opposition. Printed
and hand-made political posters appeared on the Berlin Wall, on the statue of
St. Wenceslas in Prague and around the unmarked grave of Imre Nagy in Budapest
and the role of them was important for the democratic change. During the Yugoslav wars propaganda was used as a military strategy by
governments of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Croatia. Propaganda was used to create fear and hatred and particularly incite the Serb
population against the other ethnicities (Bosniaks, Croats, Albanians and other
non-Serbs). Serb media made a great effort in justifying, revising or denying
mass war crimes committed by Serb forces during the Yugoslav wars on Bosniaks
and other non-Serbs.[19] According to the ICTY verdicts against Serb political
and military leaders, during the Bosnian war, the propaganda was a part of the
Strategic Plan by Serb leadership, aimed at linking Serb-populated areas in
Bosnia and Herzegovina together, gaining control over these areas and creating a
separate Serb state, from which most non-Serbs would be permanently removed. The
Serb leadership was aware that the Strategic Plan could only be implemented by
the use of force and fear, thus by the commission of war crimes.[20][21] Croats also used propaganda against Serbs throughout and against Bosniaks during
the 1992–1994 Croat-Bosniak war, which was part of the larger Bosnian War.
During Lašva Valley ethnic cleansing Croat forces seized the television
broadcasting stations (for example at Skradno) and created its own local radio
and television to carry propaganda, seized the public institutions, raised the
Croatian flag over public institution buildings, and imposed the Croatian Dinar
as the unit of currency. During this time, Busovača's Bosniaks were forced to
sign an act of allegiance to the Croat authorities, fell victim to numerous
attacks on shops and businesses and, gradually, left the area out of fear that
they would be the victims of mass crimes.[22] According to ICTY Trial Chambers
in Blaškić case Croat authorities created a radio station in Kiseljak to
broadcast nationalist propaganda.[23] A similar pattern was applied in Mostar
and Gornji Vakuf (where Croats created a radio station called Radio
Uskoplje).[24] Local propaganda efforts in parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina
controlled by the Croats, were supported by Croatian daily newspapers such as
Večernji list and Croatian Radiotelevision, especially by controversial
reporters Dijana Čuljak and Smiljko Šagolj who are still blamed by the
families of Bosniak victims in Vranica case for inciting massacre of Bosnian
POWs in Mostar, when broadcasting a report about alleged terrorists arrested by
Croats who victimized Croat civilians. The bodies of Bosnian POWs were later
found in Goranci mass grave. Croatian Radiotelevision presented Croat attack on
Mostar, as a Bosnian Muslim attack on Croats in alliance with the Serbs.
According to ICTY, in the early hours of May 9, 1993, the Croatian Defence
Council (HVO) attacked Mostar using artillery, mortars, heavy weapons and small
arms. The HVO controlled all roads leading into Mostar and international
organisations were denied access. Radio Mostar announced that all Bosniaks
should hang out a white flag from their windows. The HVO attack had been well
prepared and planned.[25] During the ICTY trials against Croat war leaders, many Croatian journalists
participated as the defence witnesses trying to relativise war crimes committed
by Croatian troops against non-Croat civilians (Bosniaks in Bosnia and
Herzegovina and Serbs in Croatia). During the trial against general Tihomir
Blaškić (later convicted of war crimes), Ivica Mlivončić, Croatian columnist
in Slobodna Dalmacija, tried to defend general Blaškić presenting number of
claims in his book Zločin s pečatom about alleged genocide against Croats
(most of it unproven or false), which was considered by the Trial Chambers as
irrelevant for the case. After the conviction, he continued to write in Slobodna
Dalmacija against the ICTY presenting it as the court against Croats, with
chauvinistic claims that the ICTY cannot be unbiassed because it is financed by
Saudi Arabia (Muslims).[26][27] In the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, psychological operations tactics were
employed to demoralize the Taliban and to win the sympathies of the Afghan
population. At least six EC-130E Commando Solo aircraft were used to jam local
radio transmissions and transmit replacement propaganda messages.Leaflets were
also dropped throughout Afghanistan, offering rewards for Osama bin Laden and
other individuals, portraying Americans as friends of Afghanistan and
emphasizing various negative aspects of the Taliban. Another shows a picture of
Mohammed Omar in a set of crosshairs with the words "We are watching." This
technique has been shown to be rather ineffective in terms of long term opinions
change given current political and social conditions in Afghanistan.[citation
needed] US PSYOP pamphlet disseminated in Iraq. Text: "This is your future al-Zarqawi"
and shows al-Qaeda fighter al-Zarqawi caught in a rat trap. The US Air Force can use cluster bombs to deliver leaflets. The LBU-30
clusterbomb is designed to allow an aircraft to deliver leaflets to a target
area while minimizing wind drift. The United States and Iraq both contributed to the use of propaganda and like
strategy during the Iraq War. With the growing discomfort in the hearts of the
American and Iraqi people, there needed to be a way to gain the support of the
on-going war. The United States established campaigns towards the American
people on the justifications of the war while using similar tactics to bring
down Saddam Hussein’s regime in Iraq.[28] By looking at the ways America and
Iraq used propaganda to benefit their individual views it is clear that both
sides had similar ideas on how to gain the support needed to win the war. The Iraqi insurgency had a plan, and that was to gain as much support as
possible by using violence as their propaganda tool.[29] By using the
inspiration of the Vietcong[30], the insurgents were using rapid movement to
keep the coalition off-balance.[29] By using low-technology strategies to convey
their messages, they were able to gain support.[31] Graffiti slogans were used
on walls and houses praising the virtues of many group leaders while condemning
the Iraqi government. Others used flyers, leaflets, articles and self published
newspapers and magazines to get the point across.[31] Low-tech methods were most common in Iraqi propaganda however, they were also
proficient in high-tech methods. The insurgents would produce CDs and DVDs and
distribute them in communities that the Iraq and the U.S. Government were trying
to influence.[32] The insurgents designed advertisements that cost a fraction of
what the U.S. was spending on their ads aimed at the same people in Iraq with
much more success.[32] In addition, the Iraqis also created and established an
Arabic language television station to transmit information to the people of Iraq
about the rumors and lies that the Americans were spreading about the war.[30] For the U.S. to achieve their aim of a moderate, pro-western Iraq, the U.S.
authorities have been careful to avoid conflict with Islamic culture that would
produce passionate reaction from the Iraqis. As a result, differentiating
between "good" and "bad" Islams has proved challenging for the U.S.[30] The U.S. implemented something called “Black Propaganda” by creating false
radio personalities that would disseminate pro-American information but
supposedly run by the supporters of Saddam Hussein. One radio station used was
Radio Tikrit.[30] Another example of America’s attempt with Black Propaganda
is that the U.S. paid Iraqis to publish articles written by American troops in
their newspapers under the idea that they are unbiased and real accounts; this
was brought forth by the New York Times in 2005.[33] The article stated that it
was the Lincoln Group who had been hired by the U.S. government to create the
propaganda, however their names were later cleared from any wrong doing.[34] The U.S. was more successful with the “Voice of America” campaign, which is
an old Cold War tactic that exploited people’s desire for information.[30]
While the information they gave out to the Iraqis was truthful, they were in a
high degree of competition with the opposing forces after the censorship of the
Iraqi media was lifted with the removal of Saddam from power.[35] If the U.S.
had wished to be more successful with their news media they could have followed
Hussein’s lead and prohibited Satellite TV and popular access to the internet
directly after the Fall of Hussein.[35] In addition to the employment of Black Propaganda and other types of mass
communication attempts in Iraq, the U.S. also used many different leaflets that
were pro-western in nature. Some of which read that the no-fly zones were for
the safety of Iraqis and others attempt to persuade Iraqis to become civil
servants for the post-Saddam era in Iraq.[36] In November 2005, the Chicago Tribune and the Los Angeles Times, alleged that
the United States military had manipulated news reported in Iraqi media in an
effort to cast a favorable light on its actions while demoralizing the
insurgency. Lt. Col. Barry Johnson, a military spokesman in Iraq, said the
program is "an important part of countering misinformation in the news by
insurgents", while a spokesman for former Defense Secretary Donald H. Rumsfeld
said the allegations of manipulation were troubling if true. The Department of
Defense has confirmed the existence of the program.[37] The New York Times
published an article about how the Pentagon has started to use contractors with
little experience in journalism or public relations to plant articles in the
Iraqi press.
These articles are usually written by US soldiers without attribution or are
attributed to a non-existent organization called the "International Information
Center." Planting propaganda stories in newspapers was done by both the Allies
and Central Powers in the First World War and the Axis and Allies in the Second;
this is the latest version of this technique.[38][39][40] Media such as daily news coverage, advertisements, videos, pictures, polls, and
various others are indirectly controlled by the news media. The country has
strayed from its popular form of mass advertising media and focused more on its
biased coverage found in the news.[28][neutrality is disputed] This is seen as a
credible source, allowing information on the current situation to be known to
the general public. As noted in the book Selling Intervention & War by Jon
Western, the president is “selling the war” to the public.[41] People had their initial reactions to the War on Terror, but with more biased
and persuading information, Iraq as a whole has been negatively targeted..[42]
America’s goal was to remove Saddam Hussein’s power in Iraq with allegations
of possible weapons of mass destruction related to Osama Bin Laden.[43] Video
and picture coverage in the news has shown shocking and disturbing images of
torture and other evils being done under the Iraqi Government.[43] This is one
way United States media is fabricating the enemy. By providing purely negative
and exaggerated alleged evidence on the situation, Americans are provided with
the generally accepted opinion of hatred towards the evil in Iraq. While torture
and mass murder of the civilian population was common in Iraq, there were
positive positions. The Iraqi government's strong military position was able to
keep terrorists under control, a position that changed quickly after that fall
of the regime. People's Republic of China Cover page of Album de la Revolucion Cubana, a series of comic trading card and
music compilation that targets children This section needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed.(January 2009) Of all the potential targets for propaganda, children are the most vulnerable
because they are the most unprepared for the critical reasoning and contextual
comprehension required to determine whether a message is propaganda or
not.[citation needed] Children's vulnerability to propaganda is rooted in
developmental psychology. The attention children give their environment during
development, due to the process of developing their understanding of the world,
will cause them to absorb propaganda indiscriminately. Also, children are highly
imitative: studies by Albert Bandura, Dorothea Ross and Sheila A. Ross in the
1960s indicated that children are susceptible to filmed representations of
behaviour. Therefore television is of particular interest in regard to
children's vulnerability to propaganda.[citation needed] Another vulnerability of children is the theoretical influence that their peers
have over their behaviour. According to Judith Rich Harris's group-socialization
theory, children learn the majority of what they do not receive paternally,
through genes, from their peer groups. The implication then is that if
peer-groups can be indoctrinated through propaganda at a young age to hold
certain beliefs, the group will self-regulate the indoctrination, since new
members to the group will adapt their beliefs to fit the group's.[citation
needed] Poster promoting the Nicaraguan Sandinistas. The text reads, "Sandinista
children: Toño, Delia and Rodolfo are in the Association of Sandinista
Children. Sandinista children use a handkerchief. They participate in the
revolution and are very studious."
To a degree, socialization, formal education, and standardized television
programming can be seen as using propaganda for the purpose of indoctrination.
The use of propaganda in schools was highly prevalent during the 1930s and 1940s
in Germany, as well as in Stalinist Russia.[citation needed] In Nazi Germany, the education system was thoroughly co-opted to indoctrinate
the German youth with anti-Semitic ideology. This was accomplished through the
National Socialist Teachers League, of which 97% of all German teachers were
members in 1937. It encouraged the teaching of “racial theory.” Picture
books for children such as Don’t Trust A Fox in A Green Meadow Or the Word of
A Jew, The Poisonous Mushroom, and The Poodle-Pug-Dachshund-Pincher were widely
circulated (over 100,000 copies of Don’t Trust A Fox... were circulated during
the late 1930s) and contained depictions of Jews as devils, child molesters, and
other morally charged figures. Slogans such as “Judas the Jew betrayed Jesus
the German to the Jews” were recited in class.[44] The following is an example
of a propagandistic math problem recommended by the National Socialist Essence
of Education: The Jews are aliens in Germany—in 1933 there were 66,606,000 inhabitants in
the German Reich, of whom 499,682 (.75%) were Jews.[45] Tomorrow's Pioneers(Arabic: رواد الغد; also The Pioneers of Tomorrow)
is a children's program, broadcast since April 13, 2007 on the official
Palestinian Hamas television station, Al-Aqsa TV (Arabic: مرئية
الأقصى قناة الأقصى). The program deals with many life aspects
Palestinan children face.Assoud (Arabic: اسود; also rendered as Assud), a
Bugs Bunny-like rabbit character whose name means lion was introduced after his
brother, the previous co-host, Nahoul died of illness.[46] In explaining why he is called Assoud (lion), when Arnoub (rabbit) would be more
appropriate, Assoud explains that "A rabbit is a term for a bad person and
coward. And I, Assoud, will finish off the Jews and eat them."[46][47] Before
Nahoul's death, Assoud lived in Lebanon; he returned "in order to return to the
homeland and liberate it."[47] Assoud has hinted in episode 113 that he will be
replaced by a tiger when he is martyred.
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.
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Slobodna Dalmacija —NAJVEĆI DONATOR HAAŠKOG SUDAJE — SAUDIJSKA ARABIJA
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PA TV Bunny Rabbit T
|